Increasingly blended learning, as a combination of face-to-face and online instruction is applied in university classrooms. In this study the use of an interactive learning environment (ILE), within a Sakai-based learning management system, as well as face-to-face teaching and learning in a first-year Afrikaans language class is explored. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was employed by means of a survey and the Structure Equation Model was used to explore factors relevant to this first-year class. In addition, qualitative research was conducted through an open questionnaire in order to determine the perceptions regarding the blended learning context and the ILE. It was found that students are generally able to function within the ILE and they are quite positive towards the use of the learning environment for learning and teaching. However, it is clear that some students still prefer printed study material. Despite the fact that students indicated that they use the ILE daily, actual usage statistics did not always correspond. Finally, this paper makes suggestions with regard to adapting teaching in terms of students’ behaviour based on their computer anxiety and Internet self-efficacy as well as the perceived usefulness and ease of use of the ILE.
The increase in use of learning management systems (LMSs), the fact that the divide between open distance (cf. Esterhuizen
This study relates to the conceptual framework associated with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as devised by Davis (
The focus of this article is to explore the TAM in terms of an implemented ILE in the Sakai-based LMS called eFundi. Hence, an ILE is a specific environment for a specific course or module placed on a platform called an LMS. Despite some studies done on the use of this particular LMS in general (Pool
The acceptance of the ILE in a language class and the context of blended learning is firstly explored in this article. This context implies a degree of computer literacy which can be interpreted in terms of Prensky’s (
The research problem approached in this study relates to the manner in which a blended learning approach with an ILE in an Afrikaans and Dutch language module is perceived and accepted in general and in terms of the TAM.
The use of an ILE together with face-to-face classroom interaction implies a blended learning approach. In this regard, Marsh (
An ILE can act as a way to structure and guide learning in a blended manner across different mediums (online and face-to-face). In this regard, Pool and Du Toit (
Often the distinction is made between digital natives and digital immigrants. Marc Prensky describes learners who are more computer literate than their teachers as
However, Bennett, Maton and Kervin (
Any blended learning context would expose the divide between so-called digital natives and immigrants. As such levels of computer literacy, and associated anxieties, are also therefore an aspect that needs to be explored in instances where technology is employed for teaching and learning. The influence of computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy on attitudes, use and ability to acquire new skills is evident in the literature (Khorrami-Arani
This study reports on how an ILE was implemented and perceived by users. In the next section the concept of a study guide and the process of developing an ILE are discussed.
As a matter of policy, study guides have been used to direct and manage learning at the institution, in which this study was conducted, for many years. The institution’s Study Guide Policy describes a
Study guides can be used effectively to direct learning. De Villiers (
In a sense the LMS manages learning and tracks progress (Tredoux
In a study investigating the use of an ILE in a blended Technology Education graduate course Pool (
Despite having
In this study it was important to determine how the ILE was perceived by the users. As such, the TAM – as discussed in the next section – was employed to investigate this matter.
Despite the existence of other models, such as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (cf. Venkatesh
The TAM and the different factors mediating towards actual system use is represented by Venkatesh and Davis (
According to Chen and Tseng (
Davis (
Technology Acceptance Model.
This study involved the linguistics part of a first-year Afrikaans and Dutch language module. As stated before, this study relates to a move from a paper-based study guide to an online ILE. A simpler version of the ILE was trialled with another first-year group in 2014, this was followed by an enhanced ILE implemented in 2015 as well as subsequent research with this particular group.
For the purpose of the module an ILE was created on the Sakai-based LMS called eFundi (cf. Pool
The empirical part of this article involves a mixed-method approach to research where both quantitative and qualitative research techniques and methods are combined (cf. Johnson & Onwuegbuzie
For this article first-year students in an Afrikaans linguistics module were used. Convenience sampling was employed in this research as the researcher was constrained by the number of students in the specific class (
Contents of the interactive learning environment.
The group seemed to be diverse in terms of field of study. The profile of the participants is summarised in
Profile of the research participants.
Characteristic | Number | % |
---|---|---|
Female | 62 | 75.6 |
Male | 20 | 24.4 |
19 and younger | 66 | 80.5 |
20–24 | 15 | 18.3 |
25–29 | 1 | 1.2 |
30–34 | 0 | 0.0 |
35 and older | 0 | 0.0 |
Languages | 14 | 17.1 |
Psychology | 19 | 23.2 |
Communication studies | 24 | 29.3 |
Theology | 13 | 15.9 |
Law | 9 | 11.0 |
Other | 3 | 3.7 |
Most of the respondents were female and 19 and younger with regard to age. In terms of field of study most students were studying within the field of Communication Studies, followed by Psychology and Languages (i.e. Creative Writing, English, French, German, Setswana and/or Translation and Interpreting Studies).
The TAM was employed by means of a survey and analysed using a Structure Equation Model (SEM) (cf. Chen & Tseng
In addition to the TAM items, information on computer literacy, the means of access to the LMS and usage details were also gained by means of open questions in the questionnaire. This was done in order to determine the perceptions regarding the blended learning context and the ILE. In this regard, the following questions were posed to the respondents:
Give an impression of your level and nature of your computer literacy.
Give an impression of your level and nature of your Internet literacy.
How did you experience eFundi?
How did you experience the electronic study guide?
How could the electronic study guide be improved?
As stated before the analysis involved a SEM, which is described by Chen and Tseng (
Participation in this study was totally voluntary and informed consent was obtained from the participants. These individuals were allowed to withdraw from the study at any point. As the author of this article is a lecturer to the selected participants a student assistant conducted the data collection outside of official class times. Ethical clearance for this research was granted by the North-West University Research Ethics Regulatory Committee (NWU-RERC) as part of a wider project on blended learning in language classrooms. The following ethics number was awarded for this research: NWU-00331-14-A7.
Apart from the survey items related to the TAM and the biographical information, mentioned earlier, the respondents were also asked to indicate the nature of their computer literacy, how they access the ILE and how often they access the ILE (actual usage statistics of the ILE was also gained).
The respondents were required to indicate which level of computer literacy they have in terms of formal instruction or not. For the sake of comparison, the respondents could choose between having completed Information Technology (IT) or Computer Applications Technology (CAT) as school subjects; having other computer training; being self-taught or having no computer training at all. The results of this question are summarised in
Devices used to access the interactive learning environment.
The majority (54%) of respondents indicated that they were self-taught; this leaves 42% of the respondents having had some training while 4% indicated that they had no training at all. The group with no training is of concern because they are expected to be able to function within the ILE without the necessary computer literacy support.
A number of devices can be used to access the ILE. According to the participants in this study, the following devices were most used when accessing the ILE (
Devices used to access the interactive learning environment.
The preference of using cell phones to access the ILE on the LMS supports the findings by Olivier (
When the participants were asked how often the ILE was accessed the majority of them indicated that they access it at least once a day (
Reported frequency of access to interactive learning environment.
Despite the high reported frequency of access to the ILE the actual statistics derived from the LMS showed an average of 43.8 visits for the semester. A difference between perceived use and actual use in general was also noted by Davis (
Actual frequency of access to interactive learning environment.
The participant with the highest number of visits to the ILE accessed it 176 times. In contrast, another participant only accessed the ILE five times throughout the whole semester. With most respondents visiting between 20 and 60 times within the 12 weeks of classroom contact time, an average of between one and five visits per week seems to be the pattern.
The quantitative analysis included testing the instrument’s reliability, comparison of variables, investigating correlations as well as exploring cause relationships. The first statistical analysis involved reliability analysis of the TAM’s factors. The results of this step are reported in
Cronbach’s alpha for the identified factors.
Factor | Cronbach’s α |
---|---|
Motivation to use | 0.496 |
Computer anxiety | 0.789 |
Internet self-efficacy | 0.782 |
Perceived usefulness | 0.874 |
Perceived ease of use | 0.837 |
Behavioural intention | 0.883 |
Apart from
All the additional variables in terms of computer literacy, device and frequency of access were compared in terms of the TAM factors. Only instances with statistical or practical significance are reported in this article. Firstly, it is evident that self-taught users of computers are statistically significant more prone to
Comparison in terms of computer literacy.
Factor | Means |
Degrees of freedom | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CAT subject in school |
Self-taught |
|||||
Computer anxiety | 2.04 | 3.30 | -3.796 | 41.788 | < 0.001 |
0.94 |
Internet self-efficacy | 6.41 | 6.31 | 0.36 | 25.706 | 0.722 | 0.09 |
Perceived usefulness | 5.11 | 5.65 | -1.524 | 62.000 | 0.133 | 0.31 |
Perceived ease of use | 5.43 | 5.68 | -0.773 | 62.000 | 0.442 | 0.16 |
Behavioural intention | 4.78 | 4.82 | -0.123 | 36.138 | 0.903 | 0.03 |
CAT, computer applications technology.
Statistically significant at 0.05 level according to t-test results for independent groups.
Practically significant according to Cohen.
Some statistically significant results were also found in terms of the type of device used (cf.
Comparison in terms of device.
Factor | Means |
Degrees of freedom | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cell phone or tablet |
Laptop |
|||||
Computer anxiety | 3.29 | 2.56 | 2.318 | 71.000 | 0.023 |
0.48 |
Internet self-efficacy | 6.26 | 6.41 | -0.724 | 61.873 | 0.472 | 0.16 |
Perceived usefulness | 5.21 | 5.79 | -2.022 | 51.462 | 0.048 |
0.46 |
Perceived ease of use | 5.13 | 5.97 | -3.267 | 71.000 | 0.002 |
0.63 |
Behavioural intention | 4.37 | 5.06 | -1.956 | 44.837 | 0.057 | 0.43 |
Statistically significant at 0.05 level according to t-test results for independent groups.
Small effect in practice according to Cohen.
Medium effect in practice according to Cohen.
In addition, in terms of the use of the cell phones and tablets as devices, as combined for the purposes of this analysis, statistical significant differences were apparent in terms of laptops and
Apart from the comparisons noted above, correlations between the different variables were also explored as summarised in
Correlations between the different variables.
Variable | Correlation | Computer anxiety | Internet self-efficacy | Perceived usefulness | Perceived ease of use | Behavioural intention |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Computer anxiety | Correlation coefficient | - | -0.549 |
-0.235 |
-0.522 |
-0.291 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | - | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.000 | 0.008 | |
Internet self-efficacy | Correlation coefficient | -0.549 |
- | 0.143 | 0.514 |
0.354 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | - | 0.201 | 0.000 | 0.001 | |
Perceived usefulness | Correlation coefficient | -0.235* | 0.143 | - | 0.460 |
0.456 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.033 | 0.201 | - | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
Perceived ease of use | Correlation coefficient | -0.522 |
0.514 |
0.460 |
- | 0.573 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | - | 0.000 | |
Behavioural intention | Correlation coefficient | -0.291 |
0.354 |
0.456 |
0.573 |
- |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.008 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | - |
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed);
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
˜0.3 medium, practical visible relationship.
˜0.5 large, practical significant relationship.
Large, practical significant relationships are evident in terms of
It was also important to explore the cause relationship of the TAM in this specific context. In this study a 100% mediation from the revised structure model was achieved. This is illustrated in
Cause relationship in terms of 100% mediation.
Cause relationship | Direct effect | |
---|---|---|
Computer anxiety > perceived ease of use | -0.458 | 0.002 |
Internet self-efficacy > perceived ease of use | 0.340 | 0.008 |
Perceived ease of use > behavioural intent | 0.694 | < 0.001 |
Cheng and Tsen (
Revised Structure Model.
It is evident that the students in this study are generally computer literate. However, for some students this is still a problem. Most of the students access the ILE on their own laptops and most of them access the ILE at least once a day (although specific actual usage statistics do not agree as this data were retrieved from the ILE’s statistics on the LMS). In the Revised TAM, in this research context,
In instances such as the one researched in this study, the importance of countering computer anxiety and building on Internet self-efficacy is therefore very clear. Only through research focus on these areas can perceptions around the acceptance of an ILE be advanced in order to change students’ behaviour towards ILEs.
To supplement the results of the TAM, open-ended questions were also employed in order to qualitatively explore the respondents’ attitudes towards the ILE.
In terms of the qualitative data in this study, a series of open-ended questions were included in the questionnaire. In this regard, inductive coding was done in order to determine themes from the data, as opposed to testing any specific existing theoretical issues. Comments were recorded in Afrikaans and are presented here translated into English. At the end of each response the respondent number and line of the comment is provided in square brackets.
Four clear themes and a number of suggestions towards the improvement of the ILE were identified from the data.
Simsek ( I sometimes find technology hard to use, but luckily there are many people around me that can help. [73:1] My computer literacy is surely not the best and I would benefit from some training. [61:1] My Internet skills are average and I do sometimes struggle finding things I am looking for. [43:2] I don’t use the Internet. I find using the Internet very difficult. [73:2]
Esterhuizen (
Chen and Tseng ( I had a distinction in IT in matric. I’ve been working with computers since I was very young. [71:1] Despite the fact that I have never had any training I have quite good computer skills with most programs. [11:1] It is enough to allow me to pass. [16:1] I am not computer literate and do not like working on a computer, but I can do some basic things. [88:1]
The various levels of computer literacy is evident from these responses as the respondents fall on a continuum between just about having basic knowledge to almost expert usage of computers. Venkatesh and Davis (
Problems regarding computer literacy among students were also reported by Pool (
Pool and Du Toit (
The construct It is a very helpful and user-friendly source with condensed information for all my subjects. It is definitely the first place I go for help or when I have questions. [29:2] It is a wonderful pest. It is comfortable to get the information from eFundi, but less so when you don’t have access to a computer. [38:1] I hated it at the beginning, but I realised that it really helps me to keep my homework and summaries up to date. [16:2] I don’t really like eFundi because it is very busy and it confuses a person sometimes. Not all the classes have information on eFundi and so it is difficult to know what homework should be done. [9:1] I would have preferred the study guide in paper format. I like to make notes on my papers and books. I prefer to study in this way. [4:2] It is not as convenient as a normal (printed) study guide. [6:1] It is useful as it contains previous lessons. It is more eco-friendly. [14:1] I print out parts of the study guide before each class and work through it. I use it to study. [38:2]
Some students indicated that they found the ILE very easy to use and were quite positive towards the environment. However, a number of negative responses are reported under this theme. In this regard, the concerns regarding the ILE were focussed on the structure of eFundi, the fact that not all modules use eFundi or use it consistently and especially the fact that respondents still also prefer some printed material.
Behavioural intent relates to specific actions or behaviours in terms of the ILE. Some statements were identified to be relevant in terms of behavioural intent:
I go on eFundi every day in order to go through the day’s work and to make written notes for tests. [2:2] If something is not clear, then I consult the guide. [14:2] I save the study guide on my computer and study from it there. [21:2] I did not use the study guide. [22:3] I use the study guide on my tablet and laptop and it is therefore nice to access it in class. [48:1]
Clearly behaviour, which could relate to some apprehensiveness towards the use of the ILE at the beginning of a course, could change due to enactive mastery experiences (Bandura
In addition to the afore-mentioned themes the respondents also made suggestions for improvement of the ILE:
More clear facts must be included so that my learning takes less time. [1:2]
More links can be added with additional information on certain topics. [12:6]
Less information. Unnecessary information should be removed. [16:5]
It would be nice if parts of the study guide could be highlighted. [52:1]
The whole study guide must be provided so that we can work ahead. [57:3]
The study guide should be used more often in class. [77:2]
Everything can be more complete. [82:1]
More examples can be provided and the content could be simpler. [88:4]
A printed study guide is required. [4:5, 6:1, 9:2, 12:4, 19:2, 21:1, 22:2, 27:3, 31:1; 32:2, 34:1, 38:2, 39:5, 45:1, 49:2, 55:3, 58:1, 61:2, 63:2, 72:1, 75:3, 80:1, 85:1, 86:2, 87:1 and 88:2]
The above-mentioned statements provide some practical suggestions towards the improvement and effective creation of ILEs in higher education contexts.
This study explored acceptance as well as user perceptions regarding the implementation of an ILE in the linguistics part of an Afrikaans and Dutch first-year module. The use of an online-based ILE together with face-to-face class meetings in this module implies a blended learning approach. Important to this approach is computer and more specifically the Internet literacy levels of the individuals involved. In this regard, it is important to note that despite perceptions of students being digital natives, quite often they (together with lecturers) are in fact digital immigrants with varying degrees of computer literacy.
In order to facilitate the use of ILEs, content was adapted from a print-based study guide. Such guides are meant to guide learning and facilitate self-directed learning among students. It is important to note LMSs such as eFundi are not always used as interactively as they could be and it was important in the implementation of the ILE in this study to use the available tools effectively.
In order to explain and predict user acceptance of the ILE the TAM was used. The empirical part of this article involved a mixed-method approach to research where results from the TAM were combined with additional closed and open-ended questions. Clearly the majority of the respondents were fairly computer literate; however, most of them were self-taught. The presence of some students who are not computer literate is a concern. Most respondents accessed the ILE by means of their own laptops, followed by the use of their own cell phones and tablets (as opposed to university devices). Despite the fact that respondents indicated that they access the ILE at least once a day, actual usage statistics proved a lower frequency of access. With the implementation of the TAM, unlike with the original model,
From the qualitative data some degree of computer anxiety was clear. This aspect also related to computer literacy issues as well as varying degrees of Internet self-efficacy. Furthermore, the way students viewed the LMS and ILE could also potentially influence their actual behaviour in terms of the ILE. Apart from some positive attitudes towards the ILE, some respondents did question the structure and general implementation of the LMS. A very important requirement among respondents was the need for printed material instead or in addition to the ILE. The behavioural intent in terms of the ILE also showed differences, but the need for mastery experiences is clear. The respondents also provided suggestions towards the improvements of the ILE in terms of content and structure.
Significant contributions of this study include the Afrikaans version of the TAM (Addendum B), adding to the body of research on the use of ILEs in the context of South Africa and specifically the North-West University as well as questioning the use of the TAM with the original factors in all contexts.
In terms of future research it is evident that the TAM is a useful tool to gauge perceptions and acceptance of ILEs. However, additional qualitative data can complement the results from the TAM as was done in this study. In addition, due to the feedback received, future ILEs and the use thereof can be adapted to meet the needs of students. It is also therefore advised that lecturers in similar situations conduct action research in terms of the implementation of ILEs in order to improve acceptance of the environments.
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
You use eFundi because:
MU1: Web-based e-learning is less constrained by spatial limitations.
MU2: Web-based e-learning is not constrained by time.
MU3: I can fully control web-based e-learning progress.
CA1: I am worried that I do not know how to make the computer finish the things I want to do.
CA2: I feel troubled regarding some work that can only be completed by using a computer.
CA3: When I face error messages on the computer, I do not know what to do.
CA4: I feel scared in terms of operating products related to computer and technology.
Your self-evaluation of your ability in using the Internet:
ISE1: I am confident that I can connect to the web pages I want to browse.
ISE2: I am confident that I can use the Internet to download the information I need.
ISE3: I am confident that I can use the mouse to click on the web pages I need.
ISE4: I am confident that I can use the search engine to search for information.
Your views towards web-based e-learning systems:
PU1: Advancing studies through using eFundi can help my learning be more efficient.
PU2: Advancing studies through using eFundi can help me acquire the information I want to acquire.
PU3: Advancing studies through using eFundi can be helpful to my work or learning.
PU4: Advancing studies through using eFundi can improve my learning ability.
PEU1: It is easy for me to learn how to engage in advancing studies through eFundi.
PEU2: It is easy for me to independently operate eFundi to advance.
PEU3: It is easy to acquire knowledge by using eFundi to advance studies.
BI1: In the future I would use eFundi (or similar systems) to engage in in-service education.
BI2: I am willing to use eFundi (or similar systems) to replace other methods of in-service education.
BI3: If there are learning needs, I would choose eFundi (or similar systems) to engage in in-service education.
BI4: On the whole, I would use the method of eFundi (or similar systems) for in-service education.
U gebruik eFundi (as vorm van webgebaseerde e-leer) want:
MU1: Webgebaseerde e-leer word minder beïnvloed deur ruimtelike beperkings.
MU2: Webgebaseerde e-leer word nie deur tyd beperk nie.
MU3: Ek kan die proses van webgebaseerde e-leer ten volle beheer.
CA1: Ek is bekommerd dat ek nie weet hoe om met die rekenaar te doen wat ek wil doen nie.
CA2: Ek voel bekommerd oor sommige werk wat net op die rekenaar gedoen kan word.
CA3: As ek ’n foutboodskap op die rekenaar kry, weet ek nie wat om te doen nie.
CA4: Ek voel bang om goed te gebruik wat met rekenaars of tegnologie te doen het.
Dui die versekerdheid van jou vaardighede op die Internet aan:
ISE1: Ek is seker ek kan webwerwe opspoor wat ek benodig.
ISE2: Ek is seker dat ek die Internet kan gebruik om inligting af te laai.
ISE3: Ek is seker dat ek die muis kan gebruik om na webwerwe te gaan wat ek benodig.
ISE4: Ek is seker dat ek soekenjins (soos Google) kan gebruik om inligting te soek.
Jou mening ten opsigte van webgebaseerde e-leerstelsels:
PU1: Die aanvul van my studies deur eFundi maak my leer meer effektief.
PU2: Die aanvul van my studies deur eFundi help my om inligting makliker te vind.
PU3: Die aanvul van my studies deur eFundi is nuttig vir my toekomstige werk en as ek leer.
PU4: Die aanvul van my studies deur eFundi kan my leervermoë verbeter.
PEU1: Dit is vir my maklik om te leer hoe om my studies te verbeter met behulp van eFundi.
PEU2: Dit is vir my maklik om op my eie eFundi te gebruik om te vorder.
PEU3: Dit is maklik om kennis op te doen deur eFundi te gebruik.
BI1: In die toekoms sal ek eFundi (of stelsels soos eFundi) wil gebruik vir opleiding.
BI2: Ek is bereid om eFundi (of stelsels soos eFundi) in die plek van ander onderrigmetodes te gebruik.
BI3: Indien ek ooit leerbehoeftes het, sal ek kies om eFundi (of stelsels soos eFundi) vir indiensopleiding te gebruik.
BI4: In die algemeen sal ek eFundi (of stelsels soos eFundi) vir indiensopleiding gebruik.