The diamond novels of Luderitz : fact or fiction ?

Hierdie artikel ondersoek drie prosawerke wat gedurende die opwindende tydperk van 1908-1914 oor die lewe op die diamantvelde van Suidwes-Afrika, spesifiek in die omgewing van Luderitz, geskryf is. Aangesien die skrywers van hierdie werke kragtige ondersteuners van die Duitse kolonialisme was, wou hulle met hulle literêre werke die kolonisasie van Suidwes-Afrika aanmoedig. Daarom het hulle soos hierdie artikel aantoon kwistig historiese gegewens in die fiktiewe tekste geintegreer om sodoende ’n outentieke agtergrond te skep, Hulle ploeg egter vir die sentim ente met die kalwers van die Duitse triviale vervolgverhale wat destyds reeds in die kolonie beskikbaar was. Hierdie eienaardige kombinasie lei tot negatiewe assosiasies met die destydse kolonie Suidwes-Afrika en ondermyn sodoende die doelwitte van die skrywers.

Perusal of the novels and novellas from the time of G erm an colonial rule in South-W est Africa uncovers some curious literary phenom ena.These writ ings, and this is especially true for the so-called diam ond novels, can on the one hand be classified as trivial love stories with an exotic background.On the o ther hand, especially, these stories reveal detailed descriptions of the country and its people at the time as well as historic events, transgressing the fictional framework.
T herefore, in this discussion these texts will be examined as 'trivial love stories' and 'historic works' as basis for the ironic them e in this regard, 'The colonizer as loser'.
The three works depicting the locaHty of Luderitz and the diam ond fields during the G erm an colonial era and which form the basis for my study are; Lene H aase's novel: Raggys Fahrt nach Siidwest (Raggy's Journey to South West) (1910), Clara Brockm ann's novel: Du heiliges Land (You Holy C ountry) (1914), published under the pseudonym M arianne W esterlind, and a novella by Hans Grimm: Dina (1913).

I The diamond novels as trivial love stories
In contrast to the m ajority of the South-W est African authors from the colonial period, Clara Brockmann and Hans Grimm seem to be the only authors who had had training and experience in writing prior to the appearance of their novels.Hans Grimm had obtained his detailed knowledge of the diam ond fields in 1911/12 as a reporter and then devoted himself to writing after his return to Germ any.Clara Brockm ann also spent most of her stay in South-W est from 1907-1910 as a foreign correspondent.H er artistic talents are evident from her early engagem ent in acting, music and writing.During her later life she wrote popular fiction on M ozart's life and on foreign countries (c.f.Thiel, 1981:194-197).
Both these authors were familiar with literary conventions and were able to apply their writing skills in their fictional works.By com parison, Lene H aase's novel is far weaker in its composition than those of C lara Brockm ann and Hans Grim m , and this could possibly be attributed to her lack of training in literary writing as she appears to have had no hterary training.Therefore Raggys Fahrt nach Siidwest will serve as the starting point of this discussion.
C haracteristic for Lene H aase's novel is its description of the country -as such a report on a journey, not exactly a novel.Large parts of the work deal with life on board ships and farms in the hinterland of Luderitz.The various strands of the story are held together only by the heroine Raggy, the daughter of an Am erican m other and a G erm an father, both of whom were deceased.She had been raised in Am erica and did not fit into the G erm an lifestyle of her relatives in H am burg, who had taken her in as an orphan, and she decided to undertake a journey to South-W est Africa to visit friends on a farm.On board the ship she became engaged to a lieutenant of the colonial troops, Hanns von Rehberg.
H er relationship with Hanns von R ehberg was traum atic right from the beginning.While he commenced his army service she participated in diam ond speculations and became entangled in several superficial love affairs.Raggy's forced separation from R ehberg was a welcome solution to the dilem ma she had brought upon herself.
Raggy's life now took a different turn under the influence of her cousin Fred Lahusen, whom she had m et in Luderitz.He prophesied that she would experience a great and passionate love affair which would, however, end tragically after a short while.T hereafter she would m arry a rich and honourable man in a high social position.This did come true and she and Fred lived happily ever after in Germ any.
In the light of several characteristics of Lene H aase's novel it can be regarded as a trivial love story (Bayer, 1971:35-47, 6 8 -7 8 ;W aldm ann, 1973:11-33).The story is superficial, the main characters are all m em bers of high society, and its linguistic form is very simple.T here are, however, other characteris tics in Lene H aase's novel which distinguish it from the traditional love story.For instance, the character portrayal is so superficial that one can hardly even regard the characters as types; they also do not act on the em otions of the reader.
T he plot of the novel is very loosely structured and the story, not aiming at a particular goal, is often submerged in details.It is thus impossible to speak of a closed, overseeable and knowable reality.One cannot say that the villains are punished and the virtuous rew arded, even if in the end the social order is perpetuated when Raggy m arries within her own social class and accepts her social responsibilities.
The space in this novel is not defined by fictitious criteria but by historical and geographical boundaries.Therefore one can neither speak of a reduced epic space nor of a timeless epic time.On the contrary, the depiction of the conditions in South-W est Africa is exceptionally accurate and the story stays within a historically determ inable framework.Town and hotel nam es are taken over from the region; only when referring to local personalities does Lene Haase use fictitious names.By employing these techniques, Lene Haase gives her novel a high level of authenticity, not found normally in the fram eworks of trivial love stories.Even if the reality depicted in the novel is unknown to most of its readers and may therefore seem exotic, the authoress does not allow her readers to become totally absorbed in the novel's atm osphere.She achieves this through the critical distance which Raggy m aintains as regards her own person and im mediate surroundings.F urther m ore, some of the incidents in the novel are depicted with such exaggeration that the reader has to keep a critical distance.Consequently, the heroine cannot be subsum ed by the stereotypical characteristics which form part of trivial novels.Raggy does not simply accept her fate but opposes it whenever necessary.F urtherm ore, Raggy's aggressive nature also does not allow her to flee into an inner asexual love.On the contrary, the relationships Raggy and many other female characters have with men, who were in the m ajority in the colony at the time, are very erotic.There are, however, two young m arried couples with whom Raggy is in contact, and who can be regarded as positive counterfigures.It is true that in the end Raggy accepts her fate, that she renounces her life as a globetrotter in order to marry Fred.Thereby she also accepts her social duties in high society.The acceptance of her fate has, however, little to do with love itself.
Clara B rockm ann's novel, Du heiliges Land has a much better defined story line and a far m ore concentrated plot.Six characters dom inate the story: Ingeborg O berlander visits her brother Adolf and his wife Carola in Schakalwater (i.e.Colmanskop).She finds herself wooed by three m en, albeit for different reasons.Firstly, there is the socially-declassed mining field m anager, Hans G othland; secondly the lawyer (Assessor) of the regional adm inistra tion, Dr. Klinger, and thirdly, the diamond king, O skar Vollmiiller, a social climber, who is later unm asked as a swindler.
Hans G othland is unhappily in love with Ingeborg O berlander.Due to his low social position, he sees his chances of marrying Ingeborg waning.This problem undermines his hitherto perfect moral conduct -he becomes a diam ond thief and later, believing that he has been deceived by Ingeborg, a m urderer, so as to cover up his thefts.He also turns into a drunkard and eventually commits suicide.
Ingeborg, meanwhile, has problems of her own.H er greedy sister-in-law would like to marry her off to a very rich man; namely Oskar Vollmiiller, one of the most affluent diamond kings.Ingeborg, who has in the m eantim e secretly become engaged to H erbert Klinger, is able to refuse Vollm uller's first offer of marriage.But after she has learned of her brother's financial difficulties and especially after overhearing a conversation in which a barmaid claims to have had an affair with Klinger, Ingeborg is willing to accept Vollmiiller's offer of marriage.Klinger, however, succeeds in exposing Vollmiiller as a swindler before the wedding takes place.He then renews his own secret engagement to Ingeborg.Through circumstances, Ingeborg leaves Luderitz and seeks employment as a lady-in-waiting in Cape Town.H er em ployer, an elderly English lady, intercepts her letters from Klinger and finally term inates her em ployment.With her back against the wall, Ingeborg becomes a singer of Germ an folk songs in a cinema.It is there where she unexpectedly meets Klinger again one night.They get m arried in Cape Town before returning to Germ any for good.
In this novel Clara Brockmann m anaged to combine the stereotyped charac ters of the trivial love story with representatives of the most prom inent social classes of the diamond region: Ingeborg is a beautiful orphan, who, although poor, is well educated.She rides, plays the piano, acts naturally, is simply dressed, innocent, loving, noble m inded and duty-conscious.Thereby she corresponds in all respects to the typical heroine of the pulp love stories of noble ladies.H er adversary is her sister-in-law, née Schramm, who artistically styles her hair, dresses herself with erotic effect, who is inconsiderate, calculating, malicious and violent.Even if her moods are displayed within the South-W est African situation, she is nevertheless only a stock character of the trivial love story.
A dolf O berlander is the deputy of a diam ond company, but he is a weak man who blindly succumbs to the wishes of his wife, and, by doing so, lets himself be ruined financially.In order to rescue himself from his financial plight, he accepts his sister's sacrifice of being m arried to the proletarian diam ond king, Vollmiiller.In doing so, O berlander does come across as a rather weak character but not as a one-sided stereotyped figure of the trivial novel.
H erbert Klinger is the deputy district officer in Luderitz and thus one of the senior colonial officials.He is educated, cynical, aloof and a man of the world.This image contrasts sharply with his monosyllabic and unintelligent love-talk with Ingeborg O berlander which does not improve the lack of depth in his character.Despite skirmishes and erotic advances their relationship remains curiously intangible, possibly because it is not based on any deeper understanding between the two love parties.
Hans G othland is probably the most complex figure in the novel.His fate, like those of Adolf O berlander and Oskar Vollmiiller, is strongly determ ined by socio-historical circumstances.In Germ any he had failed as a junior barrister, then he had been an officer in reserve and a m em ber of a corps in South-W est Africa.He had not succeeded in bridging the gap between being a farm assistant and a farm owner because of the lack of necessary finances.His despair about his low social position as a diam ond field m anager, which m akes a m arriage with Ingeborg O berlander impossible, is the reason for his becoming a diam ond thief -despite his principles.His killing of the black w orker could be regarded as a cruel prank played on him by fate.W hen he becomes aware of his deterioration, he throws his riches into the sea and drowns himself.
In attem pting to determ ine the extent to which Clara Brockm ann's novel can be classed as a trivial novel, the characters give us the following indication.It is mainly the female characters who conform to stereotypes.All characters are judged from Ingeborg's perspective and all characters receive their due.A lthough the characters are often inconsistent because of some or other weakness, the moral landscape is nevertheless fixed.Ingeborg accepts her fate by trusting in G od and Hans G othland also bows to the law in the end.All "good" characters stem from the higher social classes; however, the m inute they step outside, like A dolf O berlander does through his m arriage to C arola Schramm and Hans G othland through his financial position, their morals are likewise threatened.U pstarts like C arola O berlander and O skar Vollmiiller are depicted as being calculating, superficial and dooiineering.
Clara Brockm ann creates a reality through characters which can easily absorb the reader.H er novel can therefore be defined as trivial.On the other hand, Clara B rockm ann's novel is definitely less superficial than Lene H aase's as regards social and human conflicts caused by the curse of the diamonds.The reason for this is the authoress' wider perception and deeper understanding of the problem s of the country and the work on the diamond fields.Especially for this reason the novel can be regarded as more than just a trivial love-story.
Clara B rockm ann's style of depicting the country is a great deal more fictitious than both those applied by Lene Haase and Hans Grimm.The reader is not overwhelmed by photographic views of the town and its inhabitants, but is introduced to the setting by individual glimpses on the life in the diam ond town and its surroundings.These separate pieces form Clara B rockm ann's enclosed and fictitious world.A part from Luderitz, she supplies all places and hotels with imaginary names.However, the reader does find useful clues in her novel which enable him to determ ine with a fair degree of accuracy the time and place where the action takes place.
As we have seen, Clara Brockmann on the whole incorporates many more individual aspects of the trivial love story in her novel than does Lene Haase.Nevertheless, Clara Brockm ann's psychologically and typologically concen trated novel probably portrays deeper insights into the often tragic events of the time.
Hans G rim m 's novella Dina tells the simple story of a sergeant-m ajor (the W achtm eister) who arrests two Bushmen and a H ottentot in the desert diamond area.The three indigenous people accompany the sergeant-m ajor to his newly-founded police station in the desert and take over household duties.Especially the woman, Dina, and the old Bushman try to entice him so that he decides to get m arried to a white woman during his long leave in Germ any.Being absorbed by Dina and the Namib, even whilst in Holstein, he only manages to find a wife by accident on his journey back to South-W est Africa.U nfortunately his wife does not share his passion for the desert and soon she detects Dina as a dangerous rival.This creates a conflict for the sergeantm ajor.He tries to distance himself from Dina, who feels offended at his ungrateful treatm ent.She then turns against the W achtm eister, also bringing shame to the police station.Finally, the W achtm eister is wrecked socially as well as physically when he is forced to ride a wild horse possessing demonic qualities.Seeing that the sergeant-m ajor no longer has the physical ability to earn his living in the desert, Dina and her companions abandon him.
Hans G rim m 's novella Dina approaches South-W est Africa from a totally different point of view.There is no trace of love in the true sense, only an erotic undercurrent which emerges occasionally.None of the characters is defined by pre-given character portraits.The W achtm eister, his wife and Dina are com plete products of their environm ent.Especially the W achtmeis ter is determ ined by the unarticulated paradoxes of life.Therefore reality does not form a consistent whole, despite an authorial and personal narrative perspective, as many questions ultimately remain unanswered.
From a linguistic point of view, the novella is a lot m ore laconic than the novels of Clara Brockm ann and Lene H aase, which extensively exhibit linguistically-trivial characteristics.Consequently, the meaning of the words here is definitely m ore complex and nuanced than in the other two texts.
In contrast to the novels in question, the novella does not have a happy ending.In fact, similar to Raggy's m arriage to Fred, the W achtm eister is, through the loss of his arm , forcibly reinstated into the European community.This, however, is here even less of a solution to the problem than those in the o th er two texts under discussion.The exact historical and geographical facts would transform this work into a report, were it not for the "m ysterious" conflict within the W achtm eister which is depicted in a very dram atic m anner.This text can therefore in no way be regarded as trivial literature.
II The diamond novels as historic works T he above-m entioned literary plots have been integrated into a specific historic context which provides them with an added dimension.Because of the historic nature of these texts, it is necessary to com pare textual events to the historic events during the years 1908-1914, in an attem pt to ascertain to what extent the authors tried to reflect authentic historical reality in their works.
T he time Lene Haase depicts in her novel is estim ated as circa 1908/9.This estim ation is based on the following data gathered from the text and, where possible, com pared to historical events supplied by reliable sources like the newspaper.
In her novel Raggys Fahrt nach Sudwest, Lene H aase integrates the begin nings of diam ond mining in South-W est Africa.On her arrival in South-W est Africa Raggy does not only com m ent on the strange fashions of the South-W est African ladies but also on business life, high customs duties, the hotels and bars (eg.Kapps H otel and the Europaische H of, where one pays in diam onds), and the other im portant buildings which dom inated the town of Luderitz at the time.The reader also becomes acquainted with the various destinations for excursions.D uring Raggy's voyage to South-W est Africa the "Exim a"-expedition is already under discussion.O ther entertainm ent is provided by m eans of musical evenings in the Europaische H of, improvised singing of ballads, poker and balls with introductory dram atic perform ances by the people of Luderitz in Kapps Hotel.Because the local Luderitz new spaper, a valuable source of inform ation, was only established in F ebru ary 1909, one cannot really ascertain how far these events correspond with the historical reality of the early Luderitz diam ond times.As Raggys Fahrt nach Sudwest is a novel dealing with the early diam ond times, the Schutztruppe which still played an im portant part in the social life of the colony at the time also appears in contrast with the later literary works.
The im portant part which diamonds play in Raggy's life has right from the start been incorporated in the novel.A t the beginning of Raggy's stay in Luderitz she goes on an excursion to Colmanskop where, according to the novel, the Colmanskop Gesellschaft is supposed to have had its offices.This appears to be historically incorrect because it was in fact the Lenz-Stauch-Gesellschaft which was located at Colmanskop during the time of H aase's novel.In other places the old diam ond mining companies are only referred to by pseudonyms.Seeing that the diamond mining companies are frantically attem pting to find new fields without the knowledge of their rivals, one can presum e that this must have happened before 22 Septem ber 1908.Prior to this date the artificial lowering of share prices and the procuring of mining fields belonging to others (after the burning of their landm arks) were common practice.Bribery and corruption on the diam ond fields were thus rife, as the Deutsch-Sudwestafrikanische Zeitung of 4 Novem ber 1908 informs us.The neglect of the mining laws, even in m inute detail, led to the immediate forfeiture of the rights to mine and enabled com petitors to lay claim to the field in question themselves.
A fter Raggy's first stay in Luderitz the descriptions of the town and the diamond mining situation are no longer as elaborate.The relatively extensive depiction of the revolt of A braham Rolf's gang, responsible for the m urder of several farm ers in the south towards the end of 1908, is another im portant event enabling us to date the work more accurately.News on the diam ond scene, conveyed to Raggy by Dahlm ann, indicates the establishm ent of many new syndicates towards the end of 1908, the conversion of the Colmanskopgesellschaft into an English company with sterling shares, the establishm ent of a Borsenverein (a private stock-exchange) with official brokers and the anger of the inhabitants of Luderitz directed at Dernburg.The anger of the public at the closing-off of the diam ond area, the export duty and the threatening Regie found expression in protest meetings.
W hen Raggy returns to Luderitz at the beginning of 1909 she notices the many new buildings and the larger num ber of Ovambo workers.The Luderitz community has also become more elegant in dress.Nevertheless, Raggy suffers like Clara Brockm ann's Ingeborg O berlander under the diam ond queens of petty bourgeois origin who boast of their new position without being of a befitting educational standard.Before Raggy leaves Luderitz at the end of 1909 she mentions the South African Territories fraud.She blames both D ernburg's special concessions to G erm an big business and the conse quent exclusion of private citizens from the diam ond business for the slump on the Luderitz stock exchange.
Diam ond mining therefore only forms an interesting backdrop for Raggy's adventures.History has in no way been deliberately faked by Lene Haase, but has been integrated with the contents of her story.In other words, through Raggy's adventures the reader experiences the historical turmoils of the life on the South-W est African diam ond fields.
The historical aspects are rather different in Clara B rockm ann's case.She incorporates most of the more prom inent incidents of the time in her novel Du heiliges Land.But B rockm ann's incorporation of history into her novel differs widely from that of Lene Haase.She does not portray history as a sequence of events, which in the end, are of little consequence to the life of the heroine, as does Lene Haase.She tries to dem onstrate the true social problem s resulting from the diam ond finds by making them alive in the fictious world of the novel.As Brockm ann includes events from the end of 1908 (revolt of the Bondelswarts) and 1909 (South African Territories fraud) it can be assumed that Clara Brockm ann must already have been in Luderitz before her holiday in G erm any around the end of 1909 and the beginning of 1910.Although she does not recount the incidents in chronological order, she nevertheless draws inspiration from many historical incidents.
All the characters used as a point of departure evolve from fact.The authoress has portrayed herself in Ingeborg O berlander.This is evident from Clara B rockm ann's tale about the "D iam antenfieber" (diam ond fever) in her book Briefe eines deutschen Madchens aus Sildwest (1913:175-182).She rides on horseback, as does Ingeborg O berlander, on business to a diam ond field superintendent who is stationed near the block belonging to the government treasury.Like the heroine of her novel, Clara Brockm ann experiences a childlike joy about the diamonds.Ingeborg O berlander takes part in similar activities to those of the authoress.She, too, visits the tailor in Luderitz and she sings in a cinem a, albeit not in Luderitz but in Cape Town (Brockm ann, 1912:202).It is self-evident that Ingeborg, like Clara Brockm ann, becomes acquainted with the various personages of Luderitz, their local interests and problem s, the election of the representatives of Luderitz for the Landesrat (local parliam ent), the various destinations for excursions along the coast and similar details which cannot all be nam ed here.F urtherm ore, like Clara Brockm ann, Ingeborg also travels back to Germ any via Cape Town.
Schakalswater, the place of action, is most probably Colm anskop, where Clara Brockm ann worked for the Koloniale Bergbaugesellschaft.As far as A dolf O berlander is concerned, no model has as yet been found.With regard to his wife and the character of O skar Vollm uller, an announcem ent in the Luderitzbuchter Zeitung, dated 2 April 1910, that is shortly after Clara B rockm ann's arrival, supplied interesting inform ation.A n engagem ent be tween a certain M artha Schramm, whose nam e the authoress has changed to C arola Schramm , and a certain Oscar M oller, who becomes O skar Vollmuller in the novel, is announced.F urtherm ore, C arola Schramm is clothed with the character traits and eyes of an obelisk of a Mrs. Von Lowen who appears as a character in a novel published in instalments in the Luderitzbuchter Zeitung at the tim e, based on the edition of 3 Septem ber 1910.A nd even a minor character like Paul W iegemann was modelled after a contem porary concert pianist, W alter W iegm ann, as can be seen from the Luderitzbuchter Zeitung of 30 April 1910.
The figure of O skar Vollmiiller is linked to several historical events.Evidence can be found in editions of the Liideritzbuchter Zeitung dated 14 August, 25 Septem ber, 2 and 9 O ctober 1909 (Levinson, 1983:54).The shares of the South African Territories Concession Company had experienced an unreal istic boom.Right from the start police had not trusted the two prospectors Goslett and Naudé who, as became evident later, had in actual fact planted the stones.Police com m ander Eschen and district officer Bohm er had suggested a Mr. Brown as a detective for the investigation to the mayor, Emil Kremplin.Brown was employed but soon joined the two prospectors in the Kharas (in the novel: Kanaas) fraud.As soon as this came to light, district officer Bohm er locked up the three criminals before they could undertake a pleasure trip to Cape Town.In reality, district officer Bohm er arrested the criminals, while in the novel it is Dr. Klinger, lawyer of the district office, who personally convicted the prospectors in order to save his form er fiancée from getting m arried to a swindler.Furtherm ore, Oskar Vollmiiller is obviously also one of the diam ond kings who belonged to the small traders whom D ernburg had despised so much.H e reveals the problem that had existed between the educated classes and the nouveau riches.In the South African Territories fraud a somewhat strange role was played by a certain Mr. Schultius from M ecklenburg, a form er have-not who had acquired a m anor and wealth in industry.He at first tried to support the rate of exchange of the South African Territories shares by buying them and founding the Kharas Exploration Company.The many parallels with O skar Vollmiiller, the character of the novel, are obvious.H e too was a have-not who had, like Schultius, acquired a great fortune.Like Schultius he was probably also deceived by the two prospectors.One was a form er detective and tried to maintain the swindle as long as possible, once he had understood his situation.Also, Vollmiiller tries, as the prospectors Goslett and Naudé did, to flee to Cape Town in the final instance.
Hans G othland is also an historically based character.H e appears in Clara Brockm ann's chapter on "D iam antenfieber" (1912:175-182) which, like the novel, begins with the arrest of a black diam ond thief.The author also elaborates on the possible bad effects of diamonds on white sorters who live in straitened financial circumstances.We hear of a man who wanted to flee with uncut diamonds and who embezzled money from black workers on contract from the Cape, even though he had been living among them without suspicion till then.
One of the last editions of the Liideritzbuchter Zeitung, 17 Septem ber 1910, published before Clara Brockm ann's departure from South W est, reports that a prospector, A rthur Beck, was caught unawares below the dunes and drowned.His horse was, however, able to rescue itself.This tragic incident was reflected in Brockm ann's novel by the similar death of Hans Gothland.
O ne last reality of life on the diamond fields depicted by Clara Brockm ann is the scene in the novel where the Ovambos receive their pay.It is reasonable to assume that Clara Brockm ann was familiar with the contents of the new spaper articles and based her story on these facts.The Liideritzbuchter Zeitung published articles on 16, 30 July and 24 Septem ber 1910 dealing specifically with the issues regarding the em ploym ent of Ovam bo workers.Im portant issues were their wages, their sensitivity to the sea clim ate, their duty to their chiefs, to return always after half a year of labour, transport of Ovam bos from Ovam boland to Luderitz and back and naturally on diam ond thefts com m itted by Ovambos.
Hans G rim m 's novella, Dina, is set in the diam ond fields discovered south of Luderitz at the mining police-station D reim asterbucht at the beginning of 1909.The historical background for this is found in G rim m 's travel journal: Hamburg-Deutsch-Sudwest-Kapstadt iiber Madeira und die Kanarien (1913; 7 8 -1 0 5).
This novella also deals with the social problem s resulting from the discovery of diam onds.At the very beginning of his novella, Grim m reports on the diam ond mining and the occupation of the diam ond fields which had to be guarded by the mining police.Grimm covers the area the policemen had to patrol on horseback and m entions every place by its true geographical name.
Furtherm ore, the W achtm eister finds w ater as well as Bushm en, including an old H ottentot who has become like a Bushman at the Buntveldschuh.The two Bushmen m aintain that their chief is Prussian Frank, and the H ottentot, who roams about the Namib, says that he too has already worked on the guano islands.Im portant background to Dina is the fact that on the guano islands poor Bushmen did execute unskilled work and Bushman wom en were concubines of the guano miners.Grim m also describes an East Prussian by the nam e of Frank who was supposed to have been a forem an on Sinclair Island for 25 years.The H ottentots of B ethanien, who were the rulers of the country, only seldom came to the sea.They did not want any contact with the Bushmen because becoming a Bushman was regarded as a curse am ong them .B efore the diam ond mining started, they had only been living at a few water places in the desert, that is, the Buntfeldschuh where deserted hom esteads could still be seen.This can be seen from G rim m 's novella (G rim m , 1913:105) which in translation reads as follows: Today the Bushmen have vanished.W hen after the proclam ation of the closure of the diam ond area posts of the police troop searched the diam ond area they only found a small settlem ent, a few women and children and an ancient Bastard.They were asked who their chief was and they answered that it must be Prussian Frank on the guano island.
G rim m 's excerpts of the life in Luderitz are all realistic, for exam ple, the district officer, who at the time was called B ohm er, and the missionary who during the G erm an occupation, was Emil Laaf.G rim m 's short depiction of the activities on the diam ond fields and his portrayal of the diam ond thefts also correspond with events of history.The W achtm eister leaves Luderitz for his vacation in Holstein as it was common for officials to do at the time.On his return trip the much rum oured ship gossip follows and the not so unusual engagem ent and immediate wedding of the two tall ones in Luderitz, that is the W achtm eister and the lady he got to know on board ship.The charac terization of Luderitz as a construction site and the description of its sandy streets are consonant with Hans Grim m 's travel journal.The anchoring places for ships of the W oerm ann Line in the diamond areas can also be historically verified.Thus the furniture transport to the D reim asterbucht by ship is an historic possibility.The same is also true of the journey of the W achtm eister's wife by coach.We therefore see that Grim m , like Lene H aase, depicts many realistic details of the country.This is strange, especially in view of the fact that the real intent of Hans Grim m 's Dina cannot be historically located.The W achtm eister is exposed to the Namib and by implication to Dina and the H ottentot because of his duty to guard the diam ond finds.In this way, however, the general problems between the colonizer and the colonized, which will be discussed in the last part of this article, are portrayed.Cases like the W achtm eister's probably did occur in history, but how im portant this phenom ena was remains open to question.
As is evident from the above, all three works have the early days on the diam ond fields as a them e, but are nonetheless fictional.The reader is led through the historical events and conflicts in the diam ond area by the experiences and thoughts of the heroines and heroes.Even if it is possible for the reader to remain detached from the main characters to a certain degree, he nevertheless has to share with them the experience of their negative fate because a real counterperspective is missing.In Lene H aase's novel the farming couple, Hartwig, is the only one among the many couples depicted which is portrayed positively and as such is not effective enough to counteract the negative impression of life in South-W est Africa as conveyed by the heroes.They appear to be more of a positive contrast to the ineffectual G erm an farm ers who are ham pered by their dem anding wives, as well as the farmers of A frikaner origin who make themselves guilty of mismanagem ent and immorality.

Ill The colonizer as the loser
In all three works under discussion it is impossible for the main characters to survive in South-W est Africa.This is attributed to two factors: either the characters themselves or the country, or a com bination of both.
Although Lene H aase's Raggy must be viewed from a critical perspective, the authoress nevertheless goes to great lengths to portray her as void of all guilt.Raggy is provocative and unfeeling but never dishonourable.T herefore she is regarded as a great lady.Yet Raggy at the end of the novel not only loses her fiancé because of the South-W est African gossip but also her money because of devaluation of her shares.Raggy, therefore, from a personal and financial point of view becomes a victim of the colonizing process.H er private life has been exposed publicly; on a personal level, however, many have to succumb to her.
Ingeborg O berlander's attem pt to survive in South-W est Africa is even less successful.A t first she is to be m arried off against her will to a diam ond king.T hen, when he is exposed as a swindler, she is simply thrown out of her b ro th er's house after his death, also sacrificing her possessions.She leaves South-W est Africa to look for work in Cape Town.W hen Klinger and Ingeborg m eet again they decide, as if this went without saying, to spend their m arried life in Germ any.Klinger is happy to shake off the Luderitz dust from his feet (p.461) and Ingeborg's final decision is that South-W est Africa after all has been no holy country, cleansed by the blood of G erm an soldiers.As Klinger states (in translation): "It has been too colourful, too restless, too feverishly turned over by hum an passions, it could not be sanctified because the diam ond sand crackled too harshly under the feet of the people" (p.461).
South-W est Africa seems not to be co-operative as regards the survival of the heroes.Klinger characterizes the land as a "trial" and a "road of thorns" , which, although it has strengthened their love for each other, is nevertheless not a country which invites people to stay.
In the world of diam ond riches all the main characters (except possibly Klinger), are victims of colonization.Hans Grim m in fact presents this situation more explicitly as the conflict between being a colonizer and a colonized at the same time, which causes the W achtm eister's personality to split into two.As a policeman of the colonial power, and having his physical strength, he is seen as the colonizer.This can be seen when at the beginning of the novella he not only takes D ina, Isak and the H ottentot as prisoners but also gives the form er two of these new names.The W achtm eister is part of the small G erm an contingent sent out to guard the recently established diam ond finds against Bushmen.But the W achtm eister is the only one who discovers any living person in the "dead land" (p.8), probably because he had been out there for the greatest length of time and (in translation): . .] perhaps only because the totally inexplicable magic of the dead land already held him prisoner" (p.8).The W achtm eister can therefore be seen as already having been colonized by the land itself and its fleeting inhabitants before he is able to colonize it and its inhabitants.These, although not a figment of the W achtm eister's im agination, seem to be demonic forces rising from the underw orld, from the "dead land" .T here is D ina, portrayed as a witch, because she has (translated) "the devil in her body" (p.24), Isak whose hunchback likewise implies demonic qualities, and the H ottentot who has been cursed for having become a Bushman with the powers of a magician arriving suddenly during the nights and being inextricably linked to the wild horse which causes the downfall of the W achtm eister.
Once diam ond digging has come into full swing in Dina the Germ ans establish various police stations in the "dead land" and the W achtm eister becomes a supervisor on a police station.While the G erm an colonial government establishes (translated) "a living net of orderliness" (p.14) across the "dead land" , the W achtm eister is accompanied by his demonic crowd to his new station which is incorporated into the deceptive network of orderliness.Dina, the most prom inent exponent of the "dead land" , is the one who operates most effectively under the disguise of orderliness, and soon the Wachtmeiste r's confidence is undermined.It is precisely during the night when the old H ottentot reappears that the W achtmeister discovers that the sergeant has a sexual relationship with Dina.This is a disorder not only in term s of what is perm itted by the colonial government but also as regards the personal feelings of the W achtm eister himself.This can be seen when the W achtm eister is incapable of exercising his duty as a police officer on the H ottentot because his thoughts are elsehwere, that is on Dina and the sergeant.
The W achtm eister decides to find himself a "proper" white wife when he returns to Holstein on long leave so that this thoughts should not be led astray.But what he does not realize is that by ignoring Dina, who approaches him facelessly in the dark, he has not solved his problem .On the contrary, while in Holstein he stares into the (translated) "untam able wasteland of the Nam ib" (p.17), and The W achtm eister always saw the Buntveldschuh in the distance and a blown over track in the sand and then D ina, as she, striding fast, was imprinting her tracks onto the rebellious ground.Always only Dina.Is a human track or even more a human being characteristic for the Namib, for the dead land?O h, certainly not.But it is pleasant to look into the Namib from Holstein, where one does not feel its terror. (p.l8) Although the narrator disputes it, Dina does in fact seem to represent the Namib, the "dead" as well as the "deadly" land.It appears that the terrors the W achtm eister does not experience in Holstein are actually the lurking dangers Dina represents for him.
W hen the W achtm eister marries a white woman, he believes himself to be protected from any dangers that the dead land may hold for him.But Dina intrudes on his m arriage as she becomes the object of jealousy of the W achtm eister's wife.In his state of confusion he turns against Dina and she starts an open sexual relationship with the G efreite (lance corporal), just to defy him and to bring shame to his house.
The wild horse with its false eyes, which the W achtm eister is to tam e, finally becomes a test of strength between the colonizer and the colonized.The W achtm eister has already been socially ruined by Dina.He is therefore no longer morally adequate to conquer and control the powers of the desert.As the lieutenant says aptly (translated), "Well, the W achtm eister will now probably land himself in a close family relationship with the sand" (p.31).But the W achtm eister seems to be aware of the fact that riding that horse will land him in trouble.He also disregards the fact that the ride itself is preceded by the death of a dog from the heat.
T here seems to be a close link between the horse and the H ottentot because the horse recognizes the voice and laughter of the H ottentot which accom pany the fatal ride.This demonic spectacle is further enhanced by the H o tten to t's disappearance and the fact that the dogs do not want to walk along the track of the wild horse.
The trium ph of the "dead" country over G erm an dom inance is reflected in the old H ottentot carrying the W achtm eister whose hand has been smashed.This symbolizes the loss of his grip on both Dina and the "dead" country; as a cripple he can no longer rule them .D ue to his m arriage to L otte and her longing for Holstein, he will be reincorporated into G erm an society but never again as a colonizer, always as a colonized.
Therefore this novella by Hans Grimm depicts a situation where the white colonizer, especially the W achtm eister, becomes completely defeated as a colonizer.As in Clara B rockm ann's novel, the enslavem ent or suppression of the white man is viewed as a psychological process which nevertheless has serious social consequences for the m ajor characters affected by it.
W hether one views it from the social, economical, moral or purely physical point of view, the conditions in the colony and especially in the diam ond fields are unbearable for Blacks and W hites, especially for the main characters of the works who are not indigenous to the colony.All three works end with the return of the main characters to G erm any, a return which brings true happiness at least as far as Ingeborg and to a lesser extent Raggy are concerned.The novels do not provide a solution to the South-W est African problem s, but only make provision for the escape of the main characters back to E urope.In this respect they contrast sharply with the novels w ritten about the H erero W ar. T here, many soldiers later rem ained as farm ers in South-West Africa and took it upon themselves to m aintain G erm an dom ination over the colony.In my opinion this is a curious situation in view of the fact that all three authors m ore or less explicitly wanted to further colonial rule.
In the case of Lene H aase, her com m itm ent to the G erm an colonies can only be deduced from her biographical details.A fter she had left South-W est Africa for G erm any, she was m arried there to a medical doctor and they em igrated in 1912 to another G erm an colony, the C am eroons.C lara Brockm ann, on the other hand, raises her opinion clearly in the foreword of her factual books on South-W est Africa (Brockm ann, 1910: III-V II, translated); As I am leaving Europe tomorrow 12/2/1910 for the second time in order to return to my work in the colonial service in Africa, I take leave of all my sisters in Germ any and lay the following request close to their heart: All of you help to unite and to m ake our people determ ined in their colonial efforts.Support our cultural tasks which have em erged in our new Germ any on African soil here at home.I deeply wish that this little book will win new friends for our formerly so heavily tested and now so magnificently blossoming colony. And: My concern when writing down these depictions was to provide a m ore or less complete description of South-W est Africa today, a chapter of cultural history, an extract of G erm an life in Africa interwoven with charming characteristics of the country so that everybody who looks for information may find something.It was a rewarding task because there was so much that was new and pleasant to report.There were no longer reports about attacks and blood shed but about blessed peace work, about the settling of Germ an traditions, of glittering diamonds in the desert which suddenly poured out a stream of wealth into our heavily tested country.Trying to avoid all senseless glorification I have written trying to be true, in order to serve the country that I have grown to love [. . .]In the first place my book is directed at the future colonist and pioneer, the farm assistant, the young farm er and the farm er's bride, that is at all those who personally wish to give the country their full commitment and happiness, but at the same time, at those who have beloved relatives over there whose life and activities they would like to understand and to follow to stay close to them .Finally, it is my wish that these simple writings may serve a didactic function for the public in general and may find a home in the G erm an house, in the G erm an family.It is here that we find the foundation of all love for the Fatherland without which an interest in our overseas possessions is not possible.H ere the national thought of love for our colonies is rooted, and here it m atures.With the heartfelt wish that this simple book may awaken this love more and further it I put it trustingly into the hands of my readers.A t present about eleven hundred Germ ans em igrate to the m andate G erm an South-W est -mostly with confused expecta tions.D oes this not reveal the unim portance of South-W est Africa for us com pared with other figures, com pared with the G erm an need for space and life?I shall go even further.I shall m aintain that of those eleven hundred people, who are nearly all without m oney, and of whom almost all belong to a group of troublesom e and unruly boys of a new kind, only two hundred stay on their feet in South-W est.But I shall now put another question forward.If a hundred boys fulfil their inner urges at a frontier and can become selfdependent and independent young men instead of being distributed across G erm any waiting as rioters and rowdies and always being dissat isfied, and further, if ten boys, who are at a G erm an frontier and far away from the imaginary rather than true inner objects of dispute at hom e, are m ade into G erm an leaders by the sun and air and the freedom and action and the unhindered manliness -is that too little?R ather, it seems to me that the G erm an future, if we as a people and a state are to have a future at all, depends on such small num bers.A new opportunity for the small num bers is a priority.
Why then is such a furthering of the G erm an colonial politics carried out through heroes in the novels who themselves cannot survive in South-W est Africa?It is true to say that these books inform one in a readable way about the country and its people; even today they are still an interesting depiction of the colonial circumstances of life in the diam ond area.As such they contribute to the intellectual colonization of the country.The practical value of colonization as is em phasized by C lara Brockm ann and H ans Grim m , however, is underm ined by the perspectives of the main characters whose feelings and opinions play the dom inant role in the novels.A n appreciation of the works which interprets the main characters' defeat in South West Africa as isolated negative examples only is, in my opinion, not prom oted by the works themselves, especially as no truly attractive counter-exam ples are construed.O n the contrary, the reader is presented with seemingly unam big uous stark facts.European civilization is praised but it cannot survive under South W est African circumstances.The works which were published overseas may therefore have served to line the pocket of their authors but would not have increased the num ber of em igrants, which always rem ained neghgibly small.
(Brockmann, 1912:VI-VII, translated)    W hen publishing the novel Du heiliges Land, Broschek & C o., again praises Clara B rockm ann's im portant contribution to the cultural history of South West Africa.Hans Grim m finally has m ore concrete ideas about the value of South-W est Africa for G erm any as the following extract from Die dreizehn Briefe ausDeutsch-Siidwestafrika (1927)  shows(Grimm 1971:119, translated):